My Teaching Experience from Student to Professional with Lesson Plans

Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development (information in quotations is from “Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development“)

Sensorimotor Stage- (birth-2 years) “In this period (which has 6 stages), intelligence is demonstrated through motor activity without the use of symbols. Knowledge of the world is limited (but developing) because its based on physical interactions / experiences. Children acquire object permanence at about 7 months of age (memory). Physical development (mobility) allows the child to begin developing new intellectual abilities. Some symbollic (language) abilities are developed at the end of this stage.”

Pre-operational Stage- (2-6/7 years) “In this period (which has two substages), intelligence is demonstrated through the use of symbols, language use matures, and memory and imagination are developed, but thinking is done in a nonlogical, nonreversable manner. Egocentric thinking predominates”. Children at this age have difficulty manipulating conditions they haven’t yet experienced.

Concrete operational Stage- (7 years-11/12 years) “In this stage (characterized by 7 types of conservation: number, length, liquid, mass, weight, area, volume), intelligence is demonstarted through logical and systematic manipulation of symbols related to concrete objects. Operational thinking develops (mental actions that are reversible). Egocentric thought diminishes.”

Formal operational Stage- (12-15 years) “In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols related to abstract concepts. Early in the period there is a return to egocentric thought. Only 35% of high school graduates in industrialized countries obtain formal operations; many people do not think formally during adulthood.” People in this stage will use either deductive or inductive reasoning.

“Teaching to the Distinctive Traits of Minority Students” by James A. Vasquez

In this article, Vasquez discusses how minority students might have some different preferences for instruction methods and how important it is for teachers to be aware of this and to adapt to their needs. The following information is derived from his article and should not be used for stereotyping a learner of any given ethnicity.

Hispanic Students- literature conveys students as having a strong “sense of loyalty to the family”, that family is their primary support and they should be aware of the way in which they are portraying their family name at all times. This creates individuals who are “other-focused” contrasted to many typical American families that push independence and let children know from a young age that they will eventually have to make it on their own.
Another area of differences is when dealing with cooperation and competitiveness. Hispanic students tend to want activities that are group-oriented, with cooperation as a focus. Traditional American schooling sets up more individual activities that involve a lot of competition.
Finally, Hispanic students desire more ethnic role models (need to see people who are like them in careers/professions they are aspiring towards)

Black students- Tend to be more person-centered than object-centered. Classroom time is spent discussing a lot of objects (letters of the alphabet, math, natural phenomena) and this should be taken into consideration. Afro-American students may respond better to multiple stimuli (for example, in problem-solving tasks), whereas most Euro-American children have been taught to tolerate monotony and uniformed instruction. Black students may also prefer more oral forms of instruction and homework, while traditional mainstream classrooms focus more on written word.

Native American students- Characterized by holistic, deductive approach to learning. Field-dependent over field-independent. They may prefer to learn from the general to the particular. They would prefer the whole, big picture first, instead of at the end. They would rather learn the more general concepts before particulars; often teaching is not this way.
They may also prefer a more private trial and error method in learning trials as opposed to public sharing. Teachers all too often incorporate failure into the classroom learning process, some Native American students are used to mastering a skill before presenting it publicly. (Again the contrast with the competitive nature often found in mainstream classrooms).

So what should teachers do with this information? As always, varying instruction is crucial. In praise, for example, a Hispanic student may not want to hear, “Good work, student, you should be proud of yourself” because of the higher importance of familial pride than individual pride. Base attempts to reinforce on the values of an individual student. That said, you must know your students as well. Learning style assessments and informal discussion may be a good way to do so. Use person-oriented real-life examples when teaching mathematics to accommodate African American students.

Teachers should be aware of the possibility of these existing differences in cultural learning preference. They can change the content they teach, the context in which they teach it, and the mode by which they instruct.

Social forces  vary with society over time, and change on a multi-level scale:

National and international level- Family, Environment, Microelectronics Revolution, Changing Values and Morality, Ethnic and Cultural Diversity, Global Interdependence, Changing World of Work, Lack of Purpose and Meaning, Equal Rights

Local Community- Class structure, Family Structure, Students’ Backgrounds, Community Values

School Culture- Values, Beliefs, Teacher’s Role in School, School-Community Harmony or Discord, Learner’s Social Status, Teacher’s Role With Staff, Assumptions, Traditions

All of these influence the curriculum. Within the community level, social forces influence how a student views the curriculum according to its relevance and appropriateness.

Direct Instruction
-best to use when teaching knowledge acquisition involving facts, rules, and action sequences
-teacher-centered (teacher provides information, facts, rules, action sequences)
-teacher is lecturer (most often)
-common form: lecture-recitation with explanations, examples, and opportunities for practice and feedback
-instructional methods: lecture, collaboration
-uses the first three of Bloom’s taxonomy: Knowledge, Comprehension, and Application
-largely verbal, lecture and teacher-student question/answer practice for understanding
-steps: present objectives and goals (may use a set induction), present content sequentially in small steps (may use a graphic organizer), model skills or processes with specific and concrete methods (use an advanced organizer to access prior knowledge), check for understanding before moving from one point to the next (with corrective feedback), ask students questions and have them summarize in their own words or re-teach a partner (give period practice and feedback)
-full-class instruction
-organize learning around questions you pose
-provide detailed and redundant practice
-present material sequentially so students can master a new fact or rule before moving on
-classroom is formally arranged to facilitate recitation and assessment during practice

When to use: If there is a workbook and textbook that help student practice, you would more likely use direct instruction if the material within required much breaking down or subdividing the material. Another reason is to spark student’s interest (ie if they think the textbook looks boring): make it relevant to real-life or explain any questions or misunderstandings they have. In order for students to master learning they need additional instruction from the teacher to give clarity to the information and to ensure their comprehension of it.

When not to use: When objectives other than learning facts, rules, or behavior sequences are desired, direct instruction would be less efficient than inquiry or problem-solving strategies. Direct instruction relates more to lower levels of Bloom’s taxonomy. Do not use if students already have a grasp of lower-level learning concepts of the topic.

Indirect Instruction
-Indirect means that the learner acquires a behavior indirectly by transforming, or constructing, the stimulus material into meaningful response or behavior that differs from both (1) the content being used to present the learning and (2) any previous response given by the student
-best to use when teaching concepts, abstractions, or patterns
-best to use when the learning process is inquiry-based, the result is discovery, and the learning context is a problem
-student-centered (student is an interactive participant)
-teacher is facilitator
-small group instruction
-instructional methods: discovery learning, cooperative learning, all student-guided
-uses all parts of Bloom’s taxonomy including Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation
-indirect instruction involves: organizing content, inductive and deductive reasoning, examples and non-examples, student experiences, questions, student’s self-evaluation, and group discussion

Here is a comprehensive summary of the social, emotional , physical, and cognitive developmental stages of students. (Found in one of my Grad school notebooks, unfortunately without proper reference)

1) Preschool and kindergarten children are quite active and enjoy physical activity. But incomplete muscle and motor development limits what they can accomplish on tasks that require fine motor skills, eye-hand coordination, and visual focusing.

2) The social behavior of preschool and kindergarten children is marked by rapidly changing friendships and play groups, a variety of types of play, short quarrels, and a growing awareness of gender roles.

3) Kindergarteners openly display their emotions. Anger and jealousy are common.

4) Kindergarteners like to talk and are reasonably skilled at using language. Preschoolers tend to apply their own rules of grammar. An authoritative approach by parents is more likely to produce competent preschoolers than is an authoritarian, or permissive, or rejecting-neglecting approach.

5) Primary grade children exhibit many of the same physical characteristics as preschool and kindergarten children (high activity level, incomplete muscle and motor development, frequent periods of fatigue). Most accidents occur among third graders because they overestimate their physical skills and underestimate the dangers in their activities.

6) Friendships are typically same sex and are made on a more selective basis by primary grade children. Quarrels among peers typically involve verbal arguments, although boys may engage in punching, wrestling, and shoving.

7) Primary grade students are becoming more emotionally sensitive. As a result, they are more easily hurt by criticism, respond strongly to praise, and are more likely to hurt another child’s feelings during a quarrel.

8 ) Primary grade students like to speak up in class. They learn best when tasks are relatively short and when less cognitively demanding tasks occasionally follow more cognitively demanding tasks.

9) Elementary grade boys and girls become leaner and stronger and tend to have a gangly look. But some run the risk of becoming overweight because of poor eating habits and lack of exercise. Boys usually outperform girls on such sports-related motor skills as kicking, throwing, catching, running, and jumping, whereas girls often surpass boys on such play-related motor skills as flexibility, balance, and rhythm.

10) The peer group becomes a strong influence on the norms that govern the behavior of elementary grade children.

11) Friendships in the elementary grades become even more selective and gender based than they were in the primary grades.

12) A child’s self-image (self-concept plus self-esteem) becomes more stable and generalized during the elementary grades. As a result of the decline of egocentric thought and the competitive nature of American society, self-image is based primarily on comparisons with peers.

13) Delinquency occurs more frequently among elementary grade children than at earlier ages and is associated with dysfunctional parent-child relationships and academic failure.

14) The thinking of elementary grade children, although more logical, can be wildly inconsistent and is constrained by the limitations of Piaget’s concrete operational stage.

15) Although most children grow rapidly during the middle school years, girls grow more quickly and begin puberty earlier than boys. Early versus late maturation in boys and girls may affect subsequent personality development.

16) The social behavior of middle school children is increasingly influence by peer group norms and the development of interpersonal reasoning. Children are now capable of understanding why they behave as they do towards other and vice versa.

17) Because the peer group is the primary source for rules of acceptable behavior, conformity and concern about what peers think reach a peak during the middle school years.

18) Although anxiety, worry, and concern about self-esteem, physical appearance, academic success, and acceptance by peers are prominent emotions among many adolescents, some cope with these emotions better than others.

19) The climate of many middle school classrooms does not meet the social, emotional, and intellectual needs of early adolescents.

20) Self-efficacy beliefs, or how competent one feels at carrying out a particular task, begin to stabilize during the middle school years and influence the willingness of students to take on and persist at various academic and social tasks.

21) Physical development during the high school years is marked by physical maturity for most students and by puberty for virtually all. Sexual activity increases.

22) The long-range goals, beliefs, and values of adolescents are likely to be influenced by parents, whereas immediate status is likely to be influenced by peers. Many teens have part-time, after-school employment.

23) Eating disorders, substance abuse, schizophrenia, depression, and suicide are prominent emotional disorders among adolescents. Depression is the most common emotional disorder during adolescence. Depression coupled with an unstable family situation places adolescents at risk for suicide.

24) Cognitively, high school students become increasingly capable of formal operational thought, although they may function at the concrete operational level a good deal of the time. The influence of formal operational reasoning can be seen in political thinking, which becomes more abstract and knowledgeable.

25) Technologies that aid student learning and development are available for every age level, ranging from beginning reading and writing programs for primary and elementary grade children to complex situations, problem solving and telecommunication programs for high school students.

5 Stages of Psycho-Social Development:
Basic Trust vs. Mistrust (0-12/18 mos)
Establishing trust and confidence in self and caregiver (mother) (vs. developing sense of mistrust)
Autonomy vs. Shame or Doubt (18 mos-3.5 years)
Shame– sense of “self-consciousness”, similar to rage when turned inward to self, wish for one’s own invisibility, Doubt and fear– coming from anxiety of being attacked from behind
Child is learning self-control but may feel shame and fear if not successful
Initiative vs. Guilt (3.5 yrs-6 yrs)
Independence- the child starts to gain competency and tries to take more initiative, but may feel guilty if they perceive themselves as too forceful
Industry vs. Inferiority (6 yrs-12)
When child goes to school, they must learn a new set of skills or risk feeling inferior, incompetent or unworthy
Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18)
Students begin to develop their self-identity and start romantic relationships and define their political, religious, and occupational views.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood)
Young adults must either form intimate relationships or feel the negative consequences of isolation. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Adulthood)
Work- adult must continue to provide for his or herself and family if applicable ($, emotional support)
Ego Integrity vs. Despair (Maturity)
The elderly adult must reflect on their life and come to terms with their whole self and accomplishments or feel despair

Social forces and trends are continually changing. They are also effecting schools’ curriculum and planning. Here are some of areas of social forces:

1) Social goals
2) Conceptions of culture
3) the Tension between cultural uniformity and diversity
4) Social pressures
5) Social change
6) Future planning

For more information, read about the three different levels of social forces.

When building a curriculum or instruction, these 10 social forces should be taken into consideration:

1) Increasing Ethnic and Cultural Diversity- an educator should emphasize the “salad bowl” theory over the “melting pot” and preserve and share cultural diversity, as the population of schools continues to be more and more diverse.

2) The Environment- curriculum should address important environmental issues such as pollution and overpopulation to raise awareness and prevent further damage.

3) Changing Values and Morality- there has been an inconsistent cycle of frugality versus overconsumption and elders transmitting values to the next generations seems somewhat lost. Increasing drug and alcohol abuse as well as a high divorce rate are evidence. Students admitted to a much higher level of cheating on tests or stealing from a store. Teachers can help ameliorate this by implementing character education (Kohlberg, equity/justice/caring/empathy) but some parents and teachers oppose this, thinking it best that values and morality be left to the home sphere.

4) Family- Family dynamic is changing now more than ever: single-parent families, grand-parents as guardians, same-sex parents, and stepparent families are more common than ever. Families are not as close as before, not closely tied to community, mothers are working more, family can be spread over a large geographical area. The roles of mothers, fathers, and families overall have changed.

5) Microelectronics Revolution- technology is more important now than ever and ever-changing, with a vast array of available educational aids. Computers, software, programs, and other technologies have changed the way people learn- as well as the time and place! Computer literacy should be included and students who are not familiar with technologies available should be exposed in a structured and nonthreatening way.

6) Changing World of Work- the boom in technology has greatly changed the job market and will continue to do so, again reinforcing the importance of technological education for all students. Teachers should encourage and enable students to become self-directed life-long learners.

7) Equal rights- women and minority groups have had success in seeking equal rights and creating more equality. However, with N.C.L.B. there is again more inequality because of the uniform standards applied globally. Students with learning difficulties or language barriers are getting left behind, and some students with no handicaps are being placed in special education classes. Schools try to promote social change and equal opportunity, but somehow end up often furthering the existing problems.

8 ) Crime & Violence- there is much more school vandalism, more violence including armed robberies, burglaries, aggravated assaults, and rapes at schools. Violence and gangs create unsafe neighborhoods, and the issues in school are ever-more complicated with too many instances of school shootings.

9) Lack of Purpose & Meaning- changes in family dynamics, rampant corruption and violence, poverty, fluctuation in economy, rapid changes in technology increasing disparities, crime, the lack of adult guidance, and injustice leave many students feeling a lack of purpose or meaning. Resulting concerns include: depression, eating disorders, violent and criminal behavior, alcohol and drug abuse, academic failure or drop-out, suicide, and teenage pregnancies and STDs.

10) Global Interdependence- international relations are extremely important and continue to be more and more so; educators must help students understand others cultures and values, economics, and way of life so they can participate in a global community.

Questions to think about:

What are some ways that teachers in any given content area can adjust their curriculum to reflect these important forces?

What social forces are currently heavily impacting the lives of your students? Are they all important at this time?

How can you help students be more aware of these and share what they are personally faced with?

How can your curriculum bring about positive changes that can impact the greater community and nation?

What social forces are you most concerned with? Are there any that you are uncomfortable or unfamiliar with? Educators must be aware of these forces and have up-to-date, accurate knowledge about them.

Vygotsky’s Social-Cultural Theory
Vygotsky: psychological tools enable the individual to develop higher psychological processes; they come from outside the individual from the surrounding culture
-General genetic law of cultural development occurs on 2 planes:
*Social plane- appears between people in an interpsychological category
*Psychological plane- appears after the interpsychological to within the child as intrapsychological
-Culture enhances the social, interpersonal, and language skills of an individual

Information Processing Theory (IPT)
-Sensory pattern recognition> short-term memory (STM)> encoding techniques > long-term memory (LTM)
-To help convert information to long-term memory encoding techniques must be used:
*chunking
*visualization
*imaging
*elaboration
*repeating
*contexting
-COVER: Connection, Organization, Visualization, Elaboration, Rehearsal (brings more deep relevance)
-Memory made up of: Taxon memory system (rote memorization as in Reading or History), Locale memory system (learning the bigger picture needed in Math or Science), and the brain seeking connections in the information

Motivation Theory
-In order for self-appraisals to influence behavior, they must involve valued activities; the greater the value of an activity, the more the likelihood the self-appraisal will elicit self-approval.
-Teachers must determine how to motivate the students (extrinsic vs. intrinsic) and use it to increase learning.
-Intrinsically motivated students are driven by a need for competence and control over the environment. The student plays an active role in the learning situation, is internally driven to exhibit appropriate behaviors, and exercises his or her right to choose. They perceive that they have total or partial control of the learning situation.

-Knowledge is constructed by the individual with guidance from an educator
-Teacher’s role is as facilitator
-Learner is active
-Much collaboration and cooperative learning
-Reinforcement is natural/intrinsic
-Teacher demonstrates strategies and supports the students’ use of these strategies in a discussion in which all jointly construct meaning. Gradually, more and more of the responsibility for the discussion is turned over to the students. Learners tend to internalize strategies that they can transfer to other academic tasks (big picture/real life application).

I took the first series of Praxis I tests before I graduated college. They were very easy. If you want to be a teacher, you should know everything on them already, and if you don’t…you might want to rethink choosing to try and teach others.I survived the Praxis II Content Area Knowledge in French and it was not anywhere near as bad as I thought it might be. I have been taking Education courses only for the past two and a half years and studying a little bit of French here and there when I can, or reading random articles. I love French, but I have not been exposed to much recently.
I can offer a few tips for those taking a Praxis II for languages:

First off- Know your verb tenses, but don’t obsess over them all: You do not need to have memorized every single different subjunctive, but you should know and be aware of them. They only used about seven or eight tenses, not the fourteen that I studied in 501 French Verbs (which was a good help by the way)

Second- Know grammar in English and French: You do have to know what direct and indirect objects versus subjects and nouns and adjectives. Maybe that sounds simple, but it can get tricky with two languages and it is something that is overlooked because not many people know English well if that is their first language. Foreigners learn it more thoroughly than we do usually. So quickly review the names of all parts of language if you are unsure.

Third: You do need to know your language pretty well: At first it kind of seemed like someone who hadn’t majored in French in college or spent a year abroad could take and pass this thing. But, even though it seemed kind of easy (ie they weren’t asking dozens of questions about which form of verb would you use for this, is the subjunctive used for this this or that? Like in the SAT II French test), it still did test a wide variety of types of language knowledge. They asked a lot of questions that didn’t seem too tough, but I think that was because I have such a good listening ear now after being exposed to real French speakers and modern spoken French!
They do pose enough varied questions that someone with lower levels of global vocabulary and cultural knowledge might not get, especially if they get stuck on one word they don’t understand (which seems less likely for those who have a true mastery of the whole language.

Was there anything that was unexpectedly difficult?

Yes. The historical / cultural section. They did warn me that there would be a culture section, based on the info found on their site. But the example question on the Praxis ETS site asked “When would a French family most likely have dinner?” And the answer was obvious: anyone could choose between 3pm, 8pm, or 11pm. Obviously 8pm. That is like common sense French culture that practically everyone knows.
These questions were sometimes way beyond me, like no one had ever mentioned anything about them in all my ten years of taking French classes. Do you know what resulted after Joan of Arc did her thing? How about the first piece of literature written in English? French speakers- do you know the French? Some questions seemed over the line- like what is a ‘troubador’? Not many people I majored in French at school with would know that.

Final thoughts: If you have trouble listening to a regular French news broadcast or can’t make it through a few pages of a French novel without needing a dictionary to get what’s going on, then you are going to have trouble. Keep in mind that I only started reviewing a few weeks before the test, and I have been out of study, so to speak, for almost three years.
If you do want to study, do not waste your time and money on buying a Praxis II study guide. Unless you have a lot of money and don’t care about the poor helpless trees out there in the environment. I don’t think they would be much more helpful than just using what you have, and the internet- try Better Learn French for some resources.
Just make use of the French manuals you have, coupled with listening to French news, or some other communication with real live French people, and mostly- use an awesome site like LiveMocha.com to really get a good language review!

A few final random tips for French takers:

Elision- what’s an elision? As far as grammar goes you do need to this type of lexicon

Joan of Arc- what resulted from her heroic actions?

Holidays- What day is la Fete de Travail (I think it’s May 1st) or what do they do on le premier mai?

Random history- what did a troubador help spread? what was the importance of chanson de roland? what did the huguenots bring to France? what is chartres known for? and stuff i knew, like what is the flower of France or what book is this quote from (the quote about only being able to see with the heart from Le Petit Prince).

I don’t exactly know how you would study for all of that. You could read up on stuff, but you really just have to know a lot of random stuff. I’m pretty sure I did fine on all the other parts besides the cultural one!